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How
the Wayfinder Holds the Canoe's Course
 How
does a wayfinder determine direction and hold a course for his
vessel, without navigational instruments?
As he leaves an
island, the wayfinder may line up two landmarks that point in a
given direction. This is known as backsighting. But once on the open
ocean, where there are no landmarks, only a flat surface of moving
water, the wayfinder uses celestial bodies and ocean swells for
direction. At night, stars appear to rise at points on the eastern
horizon and to set at corresponding points in the west.
The Star Compass
To help him orient the
canoe to the rising and setting points of stars, the wayfinder uses
a
star compass with thirty-two
equidistant directional points around the horizon, each point 11.25
degrees from the next point (11.25 degrees x 32 points = 360
degrees). Each point is the midpoint of a house of the same name,
and each house is 11.25 degrees wide (11.25 degrees x 32 houses =
360 degrees).
The four cardinal
directions have traditional Hawaiian names:
East is called Hikina
("Arriving" or "Coming"), where the sun and stars "arrive" at the
horizon;
West is called
Komohana ("Entering"), where the sun and stars "enter" into the
horizon;
North is called 'Akau;
South is called Hema.
The four cardinal
directional points divide the circle of the horizon into four
quadrants, which have been given names associated with wind
directions:
Ko'olau is the NE
quadrant, named for the windward side of the islands, the direction
from which the NE trades, the most constant of the Hawaiian winds,
blow.
Malanai is the SE
quadrant, named for "a gentle breeze" (PE) associated with Kailua
O'ahu (SE part of the island) and Koloa, Kaua'i (S by E part of the
island); on a wind map of Pukapuka, two "Malangai" winds blow from
the SE.
Kona is the SW
quadrant, named for the leeward side of the islands, away from the
NE trades; winds blowing from the south or SW are called kona.
Ho'olua is the NW
quadrant, named for a strong north wind, generated by storm systems
passing north of the islands. (The Pukui-Elbert dictionary gives Kiu
as the name of a northwesterly wind.)
Each quadrant contains
seven directional points and houses with the following names. The
names were devised by Nainoa Thompson, the first Hawaiian in over
500 years to practice long-distance, open-ocean navigation without
instruments:
La: "Sun"; the sun
stays in this house for most of the year as it moves back and forth
between its southern limit at the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5 degrees
S) at Winter Solstice to its northern limit at the Tropic of Cancer
(23.5 degrees N) at Summer Solstice.
'Aina: "Land"; This
house between 17 degrees and 28 degrees on the horizon from east and
west can be remembered because Hawai'i ('Aina, or Land) is at 21
degrees N latitude and Tahiti ('Aina, or Land) is at 18 degrees S
latitude.
Noio: named for the
Hawaiian tern, which helps a navigator find islands because it flies
out to sea in the morning to fish (range about 40 miles) and returns
to land at night to rest.
Manu: "Bird"; the four
houses of Manu, midway between the four cardinal directions, can be
seen as the points of the beak, tail, and outstretched wing-tips of
a bird; the bird is the traditional Polynesian metaphor for the
canoe. On early voyages to Tahiti, the Hokule'a sailed in the
direction of Manu Malanai, with its wings and Manu Ko'olau and Manu
Kona, and its tail pointed back at Manu Ho'olua.
Nalani: Named for the
brightest star in this house, Ke ali'i o kona i ka lewa (Canopus),
which rises in Nalani Malanai and sets in Nalani Kona.
Na Leo: "The Voices,"
referring to the voices of the stars speaking to the wayfinder.
Haka: "Empty"; named
for the relatively empty skies around the north and south celestial
poles; Kamakau say the names of these areas are Uliuli ("deep, dark
blue") and Lipo ("deep, dark night").
(Information about the
name of these houses is from Will Kyselka's Ocean in Mind 96-97).
Seven directional
houses in each of the four quadrants combine to give 28 compass
directions between the four cardinal points:
La Ko'olau = E by N
'Aina Ko'olau = ENE
Noio Ko'olau = NE by E
Manu Ko'olau = NE
Nalani Ko'olau = NE by N
Na Leo Ko'olau = NNE
Haka Ko'olau = N by E
La Ho'olua = W by N
'Aina Ho'olua = WNW
Noio Ho'olua = NW by W
Manu Ho'olua = NW
Nalani Ho'olua = NW by N
Na Leo Ho'olua = NNW
Haka Ho'olua = N by W
La Malanai = E by S
'Aina Malanai = ESE
Noio Malanai = SE by E
Manu Malanai = SE
Nalani Malanai = SE by S
Na Leo Malanai = SSE
Haka Malanai = S by E
La Kona = W by S
'Aina Kona = WSW
Noio Kona = SW by W
Manu Kona = SW
Nalani Kona = SW by S
Na Leo Kona = SSW
Haka Kona = S by W
Using the Stars for
Wayfinding
If the wayfinder knows
the points on the horizon and the houses in which stars rise and
set, he can use the horizon as a compass. Like the sun, stars rise
at the eastern horizon and set at the western horizon in the house
directly opposite from their rising house. (The stars only appear to
be rising or setting; actually the earth is turning toward them,
creating the illusion that the stars are rising and setting.)
At the latitude of
Hawai'i (19 degrees-22 degrees N):
Hokulei (Capella)
rises in Manu Ko'olau, or NE, and sets in Manu Ho'olua, or NW.
Hikianalia (Spica)
rises in La Malanai, or E by S, and sets in La Kona , or W by S.
Lehuakona (Antares)
rises in 'Aina Malanai, or SE by S, and sets 'Aina Kona, or SW by
S.
When the wayfinder
wants to head Manu Malanai (SE) with the wind behind him and a star
is rising at the point Manu Malanai (SE) ahead of him, he would
point the head of the canoe toward the star. If there is no star
rising or setting in the direction he is heading, the wayfinder will
orient the canoe using a star rising or setting to the right or left
of the bow, or off the right or left side of the canoe or at the
stern of the canoe, keeping the star at the bearing that will head
the canoe in the desired direction. (The current and wind drift may
be carrying him to the right or left of his heading; see
"Compensating for Leeway in the Canoe's Heading.") As the night
passes and stars rise and set (moving about 1 degree into the sky
every four minutes) the wayfinder uses as many stars as possible and
in all directions to orient the canoe in the desired direction.
To orient the canoe to
the stars, the wayfinder positions himself at set places on the
canoe and lines up stars as they rise and set around him to specific
points marked on the railings of the canoe. There are 32 points
around the canoe to match the 32 points on the horizon. If a star,
for example Hokulei (Capella), rises in Manu Ko'olau (NE), and the
wayfinder wants the canoe to head in the direction of Na Leo Ko'olau
(NNE), he lines up the rising Hokulei two bearings to the left of
the head of the canoe; if a star, for example, Humu (Altair), sets
in La Ho'olua (W by N), and the wayfinder wants the canoe to go in
the direction of Na Leo Ko'olau (NNE), then he lines up the setting
star one bearing behind the left wing. On a clear night, hundreds of
stars will rise and set at specific points on the horizon, and if
the wayfinder recognizes them and knows the directions of their
rising and setting, all of them will allow him to determine in which
direction he is going and to hold his course.
A wayfinder traveling
between different latitudes must be aware that the rising and
setting points of stars on the horizon will change with latitude. As
the wayfinder moves north or south of the equator, the rising and
setting points of the stars will begin to shift north for stars
north of the equator and south for stars south of the equator. The
shift will be smaller for stars near the equator, and greater for
stars toward the north and south poles. (This shifting is due to the
shifting angle at which the moving observer sees the sky over the
curved surface of the earth.)
The angles at which
the stars rise and set will also change with latitude. Only at the
equator do stars appear to rise perpendicular to the horizon. In
Hawai'i, at 21 degrees N, stars rise and set at a 21 degree angle,
leaning south from straight up; in Tahiti, at 17 degrees south,
stars rise and set at a 17 degrees angle, leaning north from
straight up. In other words, the angle at which stars rise and set
from a line perpendicular to the horizon is equal to the latitude of
the observer, and the pathways of the stars lean south in the
northern hemisphere and north in the southern hemisphere. When the
wayfinder draws an imaginary line from a star to its rising or
setting point on the horizon to determine a directional point on the
horizon, the angle of the line should equal the angle at which the
star is rising and setting. As the observer moves toward the poles,
the angles of rising and setting of the stars will tilt closer and
closer to the
horizon until at the poles, the stars will not rise or set, but
circle around the observer like animals on a merry-go-round, with
the observer standing in the middle. At the north pole, only the
northern half of the celestial sphere will be visible; at the south
pole, only the southern half of the celestial sphere will be
visible.
The best directional
readings from stars are taken when the stars are near the horizon;
the farther from the horizon the star rises, the more difficult it
is to tell exactly where it rose at the horizon. A star which angles
as it arcs through the sky is useful for determining direction until
it is about 30-35 degrees off the horizon. At the equator, where
stars rise perpendicular to the horizon, a star may be used up to 60
degrees off the horizon.
The stars are
available about 20 percent of the time as clues to direction.
Daylight and cloud-cover at night hide them from the wayfinder
during the other 80 percent of the time.
Star Groups and
Hawaiian Names for Stars
The wayfinder must
memorize the position of as many stars as possible on the celestial
sphere. On cloudy nights, when only parts of the sky are visible, he
must be able to recognize isolated stars or star groups and to
imagine the rest of the celestial sphere around them. To help
remember the pattern of stars in the sky, Nainoa Thompson has
organized the sky into three star lines, which appear one after
another in the sky. The three groups have been given the names
Ke Ka o Makali'i
("The Canoe- Bailer of Makali'i"),Manaiakalani
("The Chief's Fishline"). Each group
takes up about one fourth of the celestial sphere; a fourth group of
stars, as yet unnamed, includes 'Iwa Keli'i (the constellation
Cassiopeia) and the
Great Square of Pegasus.
(Some of the following star names are traditional;
others are new; the Polynesian Voyaging Society is in the process of
naming in Hawaiian all the major stars, constellations, and
quadrants of the celestial sphere.)
One way to remember the
sequence of the four quadrants of the sky is to use the mnemonic
patterns:
A bowl (the bailer, a
half circle of stars); followed by a line (Iwikuamo'o is sometimes
called the "North-South Star Line"); followed by a triangle
(Manaiakalani contains the three bright stars of the Navigator's
Triangle); followed by a square (the fourth quarter of the sky
includes the Great Square of Pegasus)
Or a bailer (Ke Ka);
followed by a backbone (Iwikuamo'o); followed by a fishhook
(Manaiakalani is the name of Maui's fishhook); followed by a seabird
('Iwa)
Ke Ka
O Makali'i ("The Canoe-Bailer of Makali'i")
Ke Ka O Makali'i is
formed by five stars curving across the sky from 'akau (north) to
hema (south) in the shape of a bailer, with the bottom toward hikina
(east) and the rim toward komohana (west). During Ho'oilo (the
winter season from November to April), these stars are visible for
most of the night in the Hawaiian sky; during Kau (the summer season
from May to October), these stars are in the sky overhead mostly
during the daylight hours. The five stars of Ke Ka o Makali'i are
the following:
Hoku-lei
("Star-Wreath"-Makemson): This sun-yellow star is at the 'akau point
of Ke Ka O Makali'i. According to Makemson, Hoku-lei is also the
name for a circle of five stars forming a star-lei, the star
Hoku-lei being the brightest star in the lei. The haole name for
Hoku-lei is Capella (Alpha Aurigae); the name of the constellation
formed by the circle of five stars is Auriga ("Charioteer").
According to Johnson and Mahelona, Hoku-lei is an "unidentified
star. Lit., 'star-suspended over land'" (5).
Na Mahoe ("The Twins")
is a pair of stars. The first of the pair to appear in the Hawaiian
sky, a whitish green star, is called Nana-mua ("Look forward” -
Pukui-Elbert); the sun yellow star that follows is called Nana-hope
("Look behind” - Pukui- Elbert). Johnson-Mahelona and Makemson give
the name as "Nana," equivalent to "Ana," or star, so "Nana-mua"
means "First star" and "Nana-hope" means "Last star." The pair of
stars is also called Nana-mua-ma ("Nana-mua and associate"). Other
Hawaiian names: Mahau ("Twins"-M), [Ka-]Mahana ("Twins"), Na
Hoku-Mahana, and Na-lalani-a-Pili-lua ("The lines of the clinging
ones"-J & M). The haole name for this pair is Gemini ("The Twins");
Nana-mua is called Castor (Alpha Geminorum) and Nana-hope is called
Pollux (Beta Geminorum).
Puana ("Blossom"; a new
Hawaiian name based on a Maori name): This light yellow star has no
recorded Hawaiian name; in Maori it is called Puanga-hori ("False
Puanga") to distinguish it from its pair Puanga or Puanga-rua
("Blossom-cluster"), or Rigel. The haole name for Puana is Procyon
(Alpha Canis Minoris).
`A`a ("Burning
brightly"): This blue-white star, the brightest in the sky, is at
the hema point of Ke Ka o Makali'i. Johnson and Mahelona suggest
'A'a is also a name for the seabird known as the booby (52), which
is used to locate islands; these birds leave their nesting island in
the morning to hunt for fish at sea, and return to the island in the
evening (range: 30-50 miles-Lewis 171). Other names for this star:
Hiki-kau-[e]-lia; Hiki-kau-e-lono (cf. A-iki-kau-e-lono,
"The-small-booby-bird-of-Lono"-J & M); Hiki-kau-lono-meha ("Star of
solitary Lono"; also Lono or Lono-meha); [Hiki] kaulana-o-meha;
Kau-ano-meha ("Standing alone and sacred"-M); Hoku-kau'opae ("Star
for placing shrimp"-J & M; cf. Kau-opae: "name for Sirius as patron
of shrimp fishing"-M); [Hoku-ho'okele-wa'a" ("Canoe-guiding star"-J
& M); Kaulu-lena, Kaulua-lena ("Yellow star"), or Lena;
Kaulua[-i-ha'i-mohai] or [-a-ha'i-mohai] ("Flower of the
heavens"-M). Makemson says Kaulua means "Bright star"; Kaulua is
also the name of a month: February on Hawai'i, June on Moloka'i, and
December on O'ahu. The haole name for this star is Sirius (Alpha
Canis Majoris).
Stars in and around
Ke Ka o Makali'i
Makali'i ("Little eyes"
or "Little stars"): This cluster of seven little stars rises ahead
of the stars of Ke Ka o Makali'i. According to Makemson, "Maka-li'i"
may be interpreted as "High-born stars" ("Maka-ali'i"); Beckwith
(367) suggests "Eyes of the chief," Makali'i being the ho'okele
(navigator-steersman) for the famous voyager Hawaii-loa. Makali'i
was the "guiding star [cluster] for the first month of the year
(November-December); also marked the beginning of the year when it
rose at sunset. A thousand years ago, the rising of this group of
stars in the east would have occurred a month earlier
(October-November)." Makali'i was the name of a month (December on
Hawai'i, April on Moloka'i, October on O'ahu-Malo 33). Other names
for Makali'i: Hu[i]hui ("Group"); Kupuku ("Cluster"). Beckwith says
that Makali'i was actually Hoku'ula (Aldebaran), and the cluster of
seven stars called Makali'i had the following names:
Na-Huihui-o-Makali'i ("The Cluster of Makali'i"),
Huihui-koko-a-Makali'i-kau-i-luna ("Makali'i's rainbow colored nets
hung above"), Na Wahine-o-Makali'i ("The wife of Makali'i"),
Na-ka-o-Makali'i ("The bailers of Makali'i"), Na-koko-a-Makali’i
("The nets of Makali'i"). According to Makemson, Makali'i is the bow
of the Maori canoe Tainui, with the Cross as the anchor,"the Belt of
Orion as stern, the Sword as cable, and the Hyades [the face of
Taurus] as sail [Te Ra-o-Tainui]" (249). The cluster of seven stars
is called the Pleiades in the west.
Hoku'ula ("Red star")
or Kapu-ahi ("Sacred fire"): This giant red star appears after
Makali'i and Hoku-lei in the Hawaiian sky. Other Hawaiian names
include 'Au-kele-nui-a-iku (a legendary hero, "the seeker of the
water-of-life, grandson of the mo'o Mo'oinanea, who gave him three
magic objects with which to achieve his goals on a long sea journey
of forty days"-Johnson and Mahelona, ix; see Fornander, Vol. 4,
32-111, for a version of the legend of 'Au-kele-nui-a-iku);
Kao-ma'aiku; Kao. The haole name for
this star is Aldebaran
(Alpha Tauri).
Ka Hei-hei o na Keiki
("The Cat's Cradle of the Children"; a new Hawaiian name): This
constellation with two bright star pairs separated by a row of three
stars appears in front of Ke Ka o Makali'i. The name was given
because the star group resembles a pattern created in the
traditional Hawaiian string game called Hei or Hei-hei. In the West,
the two pairs are seen as the points of the shoulders and knees of
Orion; the row of three stars is seen as Orion's belt.
Kao-Makali'i, Na Kao
("The Darts of Makali'i"): The three stars in the middle of Ka
Hei-hei o na Keiki. In Tonga, the three stars are seen as three
canoe paddlers (Kyselka 48). In Kiribati (Gilbert Islands) the three
are seen as three fishermen. The haole names for the three stars are
Mintaka (Delta Orionis), Alnilam (Epsilon Orionis), and Alnitak
(Zeta Orionis).
Kaulua-koko ("Brilliant
red star"-Makemson; "koko" means "blood; rainbow-hued”-Pukui
Elbert): This red star is the northeast corner of Ka Hei-hei o na
Keiki. Other Hawaiian names for this star: Ka'elo (the name of a
month: January on Hawai'i, May on Moloka'i, November on O'ahu, and
June on Kaua'i-Malo); 'Aua; Hoku-'ula ("Red star"); Koko; Melemele
(Name of an ancestral homeland in the north?-J & M). The haole name
for this star is Betelgeuse (Alpha Orionis).
Pu'uhonua (westernmost
point, the City of Refuge at Honaunau on the Big Island): This star
is the southwest corner of Ka Hei-hei o na Keiki. The name is a pun
on the Arabic name for the star, "Saiph" ("safe"). The Greek name is
Kappa Orionis.
Puana-kau ("Suspended
Blossom"-Makemson): This blue-white star, "suspended" above Ke Ka o
Makali'i, is the southeast corner of Ka Hei-hei o na Keiki. The
haole name for this star is Rigel (Beta Orionis).
Ke ali'i o kona i ka
lewa ("The chief of the southern heavens"-Johnson and Mahelona):
This bright blue-white star, the second brightest in the sky,
appears south of 'A'a. The house of Nalani on the Star Compass was
named for it. Its haole name is Canopus (Alpha Carinae).
KA
IWIKUAMO'O ("The Backbone")
This star line runs
from Hoku-pa'a at the north celestial pole to Hanai-a-ka-malama near
the south celestial pole. The stars may be seen as vertebrae along a
backbone; Iwikuamo'o (lit. "Bone back-lizard") is also a metaphor
for a genealogical line, with each vertebra representing a
generation. This star line follows Ke Ka o Makali'i into the sky.
Hoku-pa'a ("Fixed
star"): This circumpolar star, which does not rise or set in the
Hawaiian sky, appears "fixed" at the north celestial pole with other
stars circling around it. Actually it is inscribing a circle 1.8
degrees wide around the pole, and because of precession, the
wobbling of earth on its axis, Hoku-pa'a is not actually "fixed"
permanently. A circle of precession is completed in 26,000 years,
and in 13,000 years the north pole will be pointing to the opposite
side of the circle of precession, between Hawaiki (Deneb) and
Rapanui (Vega) and Hoku-pa'a will appear to be circling the north
celestial pole (Kyselka and Lanterman 24-8). Still, in our era, the
names for this star suggest its stationary appearance: Noho-loa
("Eternal"), Kumau ("Standing Perpendicularly"), Kio-pa'a/Kio-pa
("Fixed projection"), Kia-pa'akai (Biblical: "Pillar of salt"),
Maka-holo-wa'a ("Sailing-canoe eye"-J & M, or "Star of the sailing
canoe"-M). The haole name for this star is Polaris (Alpha Ursae
Minoris).
Holopuni ("To circle";
"To sail or travel around"; a new Hawaiian name for this star);
also, Hoku-Mau (a new Hawaiian name, in honor of Mau Piailug, the
Satawalese navigator who taught non-instrument navigation to Nainoa
Thompson; in Hawaiian, "mau" means "constant," "perpetual,"
"always"). This star appears to circle perpetually around Hoku-pa'a.
The haole name
for this star is Kochab (Beta Ursae Minoris).
Na Hiku ("The Seven"):
This constellation of seven stars arcs around Hoku-pa’a farther out
than Holopuni. "Donaghho gives the full name as Na
Hiku-ka-Huihui-a-Makalii, the Cluster-of-the-Seven-of-Makalii. The
stars of Na Hiku are individually designated by numbers: Hiku-kahi
[Dubhe], Hiku-['a]lua [Merak], Hiku-kolu [Phad], Hiku-[a]ha
[Megrez], Hiku-lima [Alioth], Hiku-ono [Mizar], and Hiku-pau,
'Finished' [Alkaid] (Beckwith, The Kumulipo: A Hawaiian Creation
Chant 208). Hiku-kahi and Hiku-['a]lua point toward Hoku-pa’a. The
haole name for this constellation of seven stars is the Big Dipper.
Hoku-le'a ("Clear
Star"): This orange red star, the brightest in the northern
hemisphere, appears south of Na Hiku. "A celestial beacon marking
the northern destination in the long voyages from the Marquesas and
Tahiti to Hawai'i as the zenith star" (Johnson and Mahelona 5).
Makemson translates Hoku-le'a as "Star of gladness." The haole name
for this star is Arcturus (Alpha Bootis).
Hiki-analia ("Hiki"
could mean star; "analia" means ?): This blue-white, medium bright
star appears at about the same time as, but to the south of
Hoku-le'a. Hiki-analia was "Used as a guide to mariner and
fisherman; computed as Spica [Alpha Virginis]" (Johnson and Mahelona
3). Hiki-'au-moana is the Kaua'i name for Hiki-analia (Johnson and
Mahelona).
Me'e ("Voice of
Joy"-Makemson): Four stars which rise before and to the south of
Hikianalia. Me'e is the name of this constellation in the Marquesas,
according to Johnson and Mahelona. No recorded Hawaiian name. "Mee
is the Marquesan form of the widespread Polynesian star name Mere,
Meremere, or Melemele, signifying 'Voice of joy'"-Makemson 235). The
Hawaiian form of Me'e, "Mele," means "song" or "chant "or "to sing"
or "to chant." "Me'e" in Hawaiian means "hero or herione" or
"heroic," "admired," or "prominent." Johnson and Mahelona identify
Melemele or Mere as a name for Orion's belt and a homeland in the
north (17). Serepwen and Sarapori are Micronesian names for this
constellation. In Pukapuka, it is called Te Manu ("The Bird"-M). The
haole name for this constellation is Corvus ("Crow").
Hanai-a-ka-malama
("Cared for by the moon"-Johnson and Mahelona): This group of four
stars appears near the southern horizon; it forms a cross with the
top and bottom stars pointing toward the south celestial pole. Other
Hawaiian names: Newa ("War club"-Pukui-Elbert), Newe, or Newenewe
(Guide star to Tahiti-J & M); Ka-pe'a ("The Cross" or "Bat");
Makeaupe'a or Mekeaupe'a (possibly names for the Cross-J & M);
Pu-koloa ("Wild duck overhead," possibly the Cross because of a
similarity to Tongan and Samoan "Toloa," for the Cross-Makemson);
Hoku-kea [-o-ka-mole honua] ("Star-cross-of-the-barren- lands"-M).
The haole name for this constellation is the Southern Cross or Crux.
Kaulia ("Suspended" or
"Hanging"): This cool red giant is at the top of the cross of
Hanai-a-ka-malama. Kaulia has been described traditionally as a
prominent star in the Southern Cross; "called the chief of the month
of Ikiiki [May] because it appears in that month" (Johnson and
Mahelona). The haole name for this star Gacrux (Gamma Crucis).
(Ka) Mole Honua ("The
barren lands"-Makemson; a new Hawaiian name for this star based on a
possible name for Hanai-a-ka- malama, Hoku-kea [-o-ka-mole
honua]-"Star-cross-of-the-barren-lands"-Makemson): This bright blue
star is at the bottom of the cross of Hanai-a-ka-malama.
Pukui-Elbert define mole as "tap root," "bottom," "ancestral root,"
"foundation, " "source"; "smooth" or "bald" [Makemson's "barren"];
"to linger," "to loiter." "Honua" means "land" or "earth." Mole
Honua may be seen as the ancestral root or foundation of Ka
Iwikuamo'o, which metaphorically refers to a genealogical line. The
haole name for this star is Acrux (Alpha Crucis).
Na Kuhikuhi ("The
Pointers"; translation of the haole name for a pair of
stars which points to
Hanai-a-ka-malama): These two star follow Hanai-a-ka-malama into the
southern sky and point to it. The first of the pair of stars is
called Ka-maile-mua ("The first maile"-Johnson and Mahelona); the
haole name of this star is Hadar (Beta Centauri). The second star of
the pair is called Ka-maile-hope ("The last maile"-Johnson and
Mahelona); the
haole name is Rigel
Kentaurus (Alpha Centauri). In Kapingamarangi, Ka-maile-mua and
Ka-maile-hope are also a pair: Ti- humu-uri and Ti-humu-te (Johnson
and Mahelona 129).
MANAIAKALANI ("The
Chief's Fishline")
Manaiakalani ("The
Chief's Fishline"-Johnson and Mahelona; "Come-From-Heaven”-Beckwith
and Makemson) is the name of the demi-god Maui's fishhook, which he
used to hook land at the bottom of the ocean, in some areas of
Polynesia to drag up new islands, but in Hawai'i to pull the islands
closer together. Manaiakalani is also the name of the fishhook of
the Hawaiian fishing god Ku'ula-kai and his son 'Ai'ai. This star
line ("The Chief's Fishline") goes from 'Iwa Keli'i in the north to
Ka Makau Nui o Maui in the south, and is dominated by the northern
triangle (Huinakolu) formed by three bright stars seen as
representing the Polynesian triangle, with Hawaiki, Rapa-nui, and
Aotearoa at the corners. The Manaiakalani star line follows the
Iwikuamo'o star line into the sky. In the Hawaiian sky of Kau
(summer season, May to October), Manaiakalani is visible for most of
the night, just as Ke Ka o Makali'i is visible for most of the night
in the sky of Ho'oilo (winter season, November to April). Ka Makau
Nui o Maui in Manaiakalani is on the opposite side of the sky (180
degrees away) from Ka Hei-hei o na Keiki in Ke Ka o Makali'i.
Hawaiki (Hawai'i; a new
name): This brilliant white super giant is the northernmost star in
Huinakolu. No recorded Hawaiian name; in the Society Islands, it is
called Pira'e-tea ("White sea swallow") or
Ta’urua-i-te-ha’apara’a-manu ("Festivity-of-the-
ascending-bird"-Johnson's pronunciations; Makemson's definitions).
The Pira'e was the pet bird of Ra'i-tupua, Sky-builder, who in
Tahitian mythology, puts the sky in order after Tane raises it on
posts: "Tane measured the spaces between the skies with his sky
measure. And while Ra'i-tupua reached up from below and set the Sun
and stars and other heavenly bodies in the blue heights, his artisan
Ma-tohi, Clearing adze, adjusted them nicely from above. Thus the
sky Atea became clear and unobstructed for the gods to fly through"
(Makemson 70). The haole name for this star is Deneb (Alpha Cygni).
Rapa-nui (a Polynesian
name for Easter Island; a new name): This bright blue star is the
first in Huinakolu to appear. Keoe, Keoea, Keho'oea are traditional
Hawaiian names: "Keoe is a Hawaiian name which Alexander believes
was applied to Vega (Alpha Lyrae); but Kupahu describes it as a
group of four stars forming a diamond. Hence it probably stood for
the entire constellation of Lyra" (Makemson 220).
Aotearoa (the Maori
name for New Zealand; a new name): Traditionally called Humu; this
star and the two around it were called Humu-ma and were named for a
famous ho'okele and his two sons. The legend told by Kupahu (Johnson
and Mahelona 167-8) suggests Humu was a guide star to Kaua'i when a
canoe sailed from O'ahu. Humu's two sons sail with the first canoes;
the older son who knows star lore gives his advice on which
direction to sail in, which angers the steersman. The steersman
throws Humu's two sons overboard; they swim behind the stars known
as Humu-ma and are rescued by their father, who sails in the last
canoe with the King; Humu and his two sons reach Kaua'i, while the
rest of the canoes are lost at sea. The haole name for this star is
Altair (Alpha Aquilae).
Other Constellations
and Stars of Manaiakalani
Nai'a ("Dolphin" or
"Porpoise"): This constellation rises after Aoteraroa. The name is a
translation of the haole name Delphinus, or Dolphin.
Ka Makau Nui o Maui
("The Big Fishhook of Maui"): This constellation is
also called
Manaiakalani. The haole name for this constellation shaped like a
fishhook is Scorpius.
Lehua-kona ("Southern
Lehua blossom"): This red star is on the shank of Ka Makau Nui o
Maui. Lehua indicates the color red; or Lehua could be the Hawaiian
form of Rehua, the Maori name for Lehua-kona: "'Rehua is a star, a
bird with two wings; one wing is broken. Under the unbroken wing is
Te Waa-o-Tamarereti [the Canoe of Tamarereti is the Tail of Scorpius
in this instance]. When Rehua mates with his wife Pekehawani [a star
close to Lehuakona] the ocean is windless and motionless.' É The
generally accepted version of the Rehua myth, according to Best, is
that Rehua had two wives, the stars on either side of [Lehua-kona].
One was Ruhi-te-rangi or Pekehawani, the personification of summer
languour [ruhi], the other Whak-aonge-kai, She-who-makes food scarce
before the new crops can be harvested. É Rehua was the guiding star
of the Aotea canoe, the craft in which Turi arrived on the west
coast of New Zealand, following Kupe's sailing directions"-Makemson
249-50); Lehua-kona is also called Hoku'ula ("Red star"). The haole
name for Lehua-kona is Antares (Alpha Scorpii).
Ka Maka ("The point of
the fishhook"; a new name for this star at the point of Ka Makau Nui
o Maui; Maka also means "eye" or "favorite"; could be related to the
Polynesian name for star "mata"): No recorded Hawaiian name. The
Maoris see the hook portion of Ka Makau Nui o Maui as Te
Waka-o-Tamarereti, the Canoe-of-Tamarereti (Makemson 267-8). The
haole name for this star is Shaula (Lambda Scorpii).
'IWA KELI'I
The fourth quarter of
the sky contains the Great Square of Pegasus and the constellation
'Iwa Keli'i (Cassiopeia), as well as the constellations Aries, the
Ram, and Cetus, the Whale, and the bright stars Fomalhaut and
Achernar in the south.
'Iwa Keli'i ('Iwa, the
Chief; the 'iwa is the frigate or man-of-war bird; a new name): This
new name refers to the bird-like figure of the constellation
Cassiopeia, which rises and sets north of the Great Square of
Pegasus. The 'iwa (man-of-war bird), like the noio (Hawaiian tern),
the manu-o-Ku (fairy tern), and the 'a (the booby), were helpful in
locating islands, as they fly out to fish in the morning and return
to their islands in the evening. Traditionally, Schedir (Alpha
Cassiopeiae) may have been called Polo- ahi-lani ("Shining in
heaven"; also Polohilani, the name of one of Hawaii-loa's mariners);
Caph (Beta Cassiopeiae) may have been called Polo'ula ("Shining
red"; this star may also have been known as Pohina); and Navi (Gamma
Cassiopeiae) may have been called Mulehu ("Twilight," cf. Lehu,
"ashes"). According to Makemson, Poloahilani was "named for a blind
king of Hawaii”. Kupahu remarks: 'The character of this star is
blindness, and it shows a whiteness when observed in the night.
Poloahilani had two attendants to guide him in and out, one to hold
him by the right hand, the other by the left. Through the blindness
of this king, his misfortune is applied in the heavens and placed
with those stars of the three names mentioned above'" (237). In
Micronesia, 'Iwa is seen as a fish or porpoise (Johnson and
Mahelona).
A wayfinder uses many
more stars than those listed in the four star groups above; while
many more stars were probably named and known in ancient Hawai'i,
their names have been lost. Some of these other wayfinding stars are
given on the graphics of each star group; eventually, the Polynesian
Voyaging Society hopes to give all these stars Hawaiian names. (See
the bibliography for a list of sources for Hawaiian star names.)
Using the Sun, Moon
and Planets for Wayfinding
The sun can be used to
set a course, since it rises on the east horizon and sets on the
western horizon in known directions. The direction changes during
the year, between 23.5 degrees S at winter solstice to 23.5 degrees
N at summer solstice
and back again, crossing the equator twice, at the spring and fall
equinoxes, in completing its annual cycle. The wayfinder memorizes
the rising and setting positions of the sun throughout the year so
he knows in which direction it is rising and setting at the time of
his voyage. He can determine the position of the sun by checking the
sun's position with the position of stars rising just before sunrise
or setting just after sunset.
The rising and setting
points of the moon change nightly. Determining these points each
night with the help of the rising and setting points of the fixed
stars allows the moon to be used to hold a course during the night.
Also, the line separating light and dark in the moon points
approximately north and south since the moon is positioned east or
west of the sun as they travel across the sky together.
Like the moon, the
planets change positions in the sky nightly, appearing to wander.
("Planet" is from the Greek word for "wanderer.") The planets can be
used to hold a course once their positions are determined in
relationship to the fixed stars.
Using the Ocean
Swells and Winds for Wayfinding
(Adapted from "Pitch
and Roll" by Dave Lyman, in Polynesian Seafaring Heritage, Honolulu:
Kamehameha Schools Press, 1980.)
When clouds hide the
celestial signs, the wayfinder uses ocean swells to determine his
direction. Technically speaking, swells are waves that have traveled
beyond the wind systems or storms that have generated them, or waves
that persist after the generating storm has died away. Swells are
more regular and stable in their direction than waves. ("Waves," as
opposed to "swells," are generated by local, contemporary winds.)
Sometimes swells can be felt better than they can be seen, having
flattened out after traveling long distances. In the Pacific, the
northeast trade winds generate a northeast swell; the southeast
tradewinds create a southeast swell. Storms in the south Pacific
during the Hawaiian summer (winter in the Southern Hemisphere)
generate a south swell. Storms in the north Pacific during the
Hawaiian winter generate a north swell. The directions of swells are
determined by using celestial clues (the directions of the rising
and setting sun and the stars).
Swells move in a
straight line from one house on the star compass to another house of
the same name in the opposite quadrant, 180 degrees away. Thus, a
swell from the direction of Manu Ko'olau (NE) will pass under the
canoe and head in the direction of Manu Kona (SE); a swell from Manu
Malanai (SW) will pass under the canoe and head in the direction of
Manu Ho'olua (NW). The star compass, thus can also be used as a
swell compass, to keep track of the movement of swells and correlate
them to the rising and setting of stars.
The wayfinder can
orient the canoe to these swells. If the canoe is heading SE Manu
with a swell coming from the SE Manu, the steersman heads the canoe
directly into the swell, the swell lifting the bow of the canoe
first and pitching the canoe back, then passing beneath, lifting the
stern of the canoe and pitching the canoe forward. If the canoe is
traveling SW, a SE swell would roll the canoe from side to side,
lifting first the port hull, then the starboard hull as it passes
beneath. If the canoe is heading south, the SE swell would hit the
canoe at the port side at an angle of 45 degrees, causing it to
corkscrew, lifting the port bow first, then the starboard bow, then
the port stern and finally the starboard stern.
After the wayfinder
orients the canoe to the swell, he gets used to the pitching,
rolling, or corkscrewing of the canoe; when the motion changes the
wayfinder knows that the canoe is no longer going in the desired
direction (assuming the direction of the swells remain constant) and
he must reorient the canoe to get the motion right. The motion gets
complex when
more than one swell is running-an experienced wayfinder can
sometimes feel as many as four or five swells.
A further complication
is that the swells generated by storms may change direction after a
time because the storm generating the swell is often moving. The
wayfinder must check at least twice a day (sunrise and sunset), the
directions of swells. Also, in places such as the doldrums, the
swell pattern can be confused by waves generated by variable local
winds from isolated and passing squalls. When the seas become choppy
and confused, navigation by ocean swells is difficult.
The direction of the
wind can be used to hold a course-the steersman simply holds the
wind at a constant bearing on the canoe. However, the wind may
change directions (it is less stable than swells), so the direction
of the wind must be checked frequently against celestial clues. ½
Using Seamarks
"As Europeans use
landmarks, so the Gilbertese [navigators] use seamarks to check
their daily position. These signposts in mid-ocean consist of swarms
of fish, flocks of birds, groups of driftwood, or conditions of wave
and sky” peculiar to certain zones of the sea. Hundreds of such
traditional betia [seamarks] were stored up in the race memory as a
result of cumulative experience of generations" (Grimble, Tungaru
Traditions 48). These seamarks were found along routes between
islands and indicated to the navigator that he was at a certain
point along his route. For example, the seamark called "the swarming
of beasts" consisted of an extraordinary number of sharks" and
indicated the canoe was "a day's sail downwind of land." Other fauna
marks included a region where flying fish leaped in pairs, a zone of
innumerable jellyfish, an area of numerous terns, an area of sharks
and numerous red-tailed tropic birds, a place marked by a school of
porpoises, a place where pairs of porpoises point their heads "in
the direction of the passage into Tarawa lagoon" (Grimble, Tungaru
Traditions 49-50).
On the 1992 Hokule'a
voyage from Hawai'i to Tahiti, Satawalese navigator Mau Piailug
shared with Hawaiian navigator Shorty Bertelmann a seamark he had
remembered from previous voyages along the route: Piailug told
Bertelmann to look for a school of porpoises; it would confirm that
he had reached a point around 9 degrees north latitude on the route
to Tahiti. Bertelmann sighted the porpoises at around 9 degrees
north, confirming for him that he was on course and solidifying his
faith in the traditions of Pacific navigation.
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